Контрольна робота з дисципліни "Англійська мова та література", НАУ, 5 курс

Задание:Text 1. Read and translate the following text into Ukrainian. Air Safety Air safety is a term encompassing the theory, investigation and categorization of flight failures, and the prevention of such failures through regulation, education and training. It can also be applied in the context of campaigns that inform the public as to the safety of air travel. During the 1920s, the first laws were passed in the USA to regulate civil aviation. Of particular significance was the Air Commerce Act 1926, which required pilots and aircraft to be examined and licensed, for accidents to be properly investigated, and for the establishment of safety rules and navigation aids, under the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce. Despite this, in 1926 and 1927 there were a total of 24 fatal commercial airline crashes, a further 16 in 1928, and 51 in 1929 (killing 61 people), which remains the worst year on record at an accident rate of about 1 for every 1,000,000 miles (1,600,000 km) flown. Based on the current numbers flying, this would equate to 7,000 fatal incidents per year. The fatal incident rate has declined steadily ever since, and, since 1997 the number of fatal air accidents has been no more than 1 for every 2,000,000,000 person-miles flown (e.g., 100 people flying a plane for 1,000 miles (1,600 km) counts as 100,000 person-miles, making it comparable with methods of transportation with different numbers of passengers, such as one person driving a car for 100,000 miles (160,000 km), which is also 100,000 person-miles), making it one of the safest modes of transportation, as measured by distance travelled. A disproportionate number of all U.S. aircraft crashes occur in Alaska, largely as a result of severe weather conditions. Between 1990-2006 there were 1441 commuter and air taxi crashes in the U.S. of which 373 (26%) were fatal, resulting in 1063 deaths (142 occupational pilot deaths). Alaska accounted for 513 (36%) of the total U.S. crashes. Another aspect of safety is protection from attack currently known as Security (as the ISO definition of safety encompasses non-intentional (safety_safety) and intentional (safety_security) causes of harm or property damage). The terrorist attacks of 2001 are not counted as accidents. However, even if they were counted as accidents they would have added only about 2 deaths per 2,000,000,000 person-miles. Only 2 months later, American Airlines Flight 587 crashed in Queens, NY, killing 256 people, including 5 on the ground, causing 2001 to show a very high fatality rate. Even so, the rate that year including the attacks (estimated here to be about 4 deaths per 1,000,000,000 person-miles), is safe compared to some other forms of transport, if measured by distance travelled. Safety improvements have resulted from improved aircraft design, engineering and maintenance, the evolution of navigation aids, and safety protocols and procedures. It is often reported that air travel is the safest in terms of deaths per passenger mile. The National Transportation Safety Board (2006) reports 1.3 deaths per hundred million vehicle miles for travel by car, and 1.7 deaths per hundred million vehicle miles for travel by air. These are not passenger miles. If an airplane has 100 passengers, then the passenger miles are 100 times higher, making the risk 100 times lower. The number of deaths per passenger mile on commercial airlines between 1995 and 2000 is about 3 deaths per 10 billion passenger miles. One of the first navigation aids to be introduced (in the USA in the late 1920s) was airfield lighting to assist pilots to make landings in poor weather or after dark. The Precision Approach Path Indicator was developed from this in the 1930s, indicating to the pilot the angle of descent to the airfield. This later became adopted internationally through the standards of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). In 1929 Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument flight. With the spread of radio technology, several experimental radio based navigation aids were developed from the late 1920sonwards. These were most successfully used in conjunction with instruments in the cockpit in the form of Instrument landing systems (ILS), first used by a scheduled flight to make a landing in a snowstorm at Pittsburgh in 1938. A form of ILS was adopted by the ICAO for international use in 1949. Following the development of radar in World War II, it was deployed as a landing aid for civil aviation in the form of Ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems, joined in 1948 by distance measuring equipment (DME), and in the 1950s by airport surveillance radar as an aid to air traffic control. VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) stations became the predominate means of route navigation during the 1960s, superseding the low frequency radio ranges and the Non-directional beacon (NDB). The ground based VOR stations were often co-located with DME transmitters and then labelled as VOR-DME stations on navigation charts. VOR-TAC stations, which combined VOR and TACAN features (military TACtical Air Navigation) — the latter including both a DME distance feature and a separate TACAN azimuth feature, which provides military pilots data similar to the civilian VOR, were also used in that new system. With the proper receiving equipment in the aircraft, pilots could know their radials in degrees to/from the VOR station, as well as the slant range distance to/from, if the station was co-located with DME or TACAN. All of the ground-based navigation aids are being supplemented by satellite-based aids like Global Positioning System (GPS), which make it possible for aircrews to know their position with great precision anywhere in the world. With the arrival of Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), GPS navigation has become accurate enough for vertical (altitude) as well as horizontal use, and is being used increasingly for instrument approaches as well as en-route navigation. However, since the GPS constellation is a single point of failure that can be switched off by the U.S. military in time of crisis, on-board Inertial Navigation System (INS) or ground-based navigation aids are still required for backup. Some major safety devices now required in commercial aircraft involve: • Evacuation slides – aid rapid passenger exit from an aircraft in an emergency situation. • Advanced avionics– computerized auto-recovery and alert systems. • Turbine engines– durability and failure containment improvements • Landing gear – that can be lowered even after loss of power and hydraulics. When measured on a passenger-distance calculation, air travel is the safest form of transportation available: these figures are the ones mentioned by the air industry when quoting statistics on air safety. A typical statement is this one by the BBC: "UK airline operations are among the safest anywhere. When compared against all other modes of transport on a fatality per mile basis air transport is the safest – six times safer than travelling by car and twice as safe as rail." However, when measured by fatalities per person transported, buses are the safest form of transportation and the number of air travel fatalities per person are surpassed only by bicycles and motorcycles. This statistic is the one used by the insurance industry when calculating insurance rates for air travel. For every billion kilometres travelled, trains have a fatality rate 12 times larger than air travel, while automobiles have a fatality rate 62 times larger. On the other hand, for every billion journeys, buses are the safest form of transportation. By the last measure air transportation is three times more dangerous than car transportation and almost 30 times more dangerous than bus. A 2007 study by Popular Mechanics found that passengers sitting at the back of a plane are 40% more likely to survive a crash than those sitting in the front, although this article also quotes Boeing, the FAA and a website on aircraft safety, all claiming that there is no safest seat. The article studied 20 crashes, not taking in account the developments in safety after those accidents. However, a flight data recorder is usually mounted in the aircraft's empennage (tail section), where it is more likely to survive a severe crash. Over 95% of people in U.S. plane crashes between 1983 and 2000 survived. Exercise 1.Answer the questions: 1. What is safety? 2. When was Air Commerce Act adopted? 3. What are the main safety devices required in commercial aircraft? 4. What does GPS stand for? 5. What does VOR stand for? 6. What does WAAS stand for? 7. What does INS stand for? 8. What is the safest mode of transport? 9. What does trains fatality rate mean? 10. What is automobiles fatality rate? 11. What did a 2007 Popular Mechanics study find? 12. What is the percentage of survivors in U.S. plane crashes between 1983 and 2000? Exercise 2.Say whether the following statements are true or false. Correct false statements. 1. When measured on a passenger-distance calculation, air travel is the safest form of transportation available 2. The fatal incident rate has declined steadily ever since, and, since 1997 the number of fatal air accidents has been no more than 1 for every 2,000,000,000 person-miles flown. 3. All of the ground-based navigation aids are being supplemented by satellite-based aids like Global Positioning System (GPS), which make it possible for aircrews to know their position with great precision anywhere in the world. 4. GPS navigation is not accurate at all for vertical (altitude) as well as horizontal use, and is being used increasingly for instrument approaches as well as en-route navigation. 5. For every billion kilometres travelled, trains have a fatality rate 12 times larger than air travel, while automobiles have a fatality rate 62 times larger. 6. A flight data recorder is usually mounted in the aircraft's cockpit, where it is more likely to survive a severe crash. Exercise 3.Paraphrase the following sentences. 1. During the 1920s, the first laws were passed in the USA to regulate civil aviation. 2. A disproportionate number of all U.S. aircraft crashes occur in Alaska, largely as a result of severe weather conditions. 3. One of the first navigation aids to be introduced (in the USA in the late 1920s) was airfield lighting to assist pilots to make landings in poor weather or after dark. 4. All of the ground-based navigation aids are being supplemented by satellite-based aids like Global Positioning System (GPS), which make it possible for aircrews to know their position with great precision anywhere in the world. 5. When measured by fatalities per person transported, buses are the safest form of transportation and the number of air travel fatalities per person are surpassed only by bicycles and motorcycles. 6. A 2007 study by Popular Mechanics found that passengers sitting at the back of a plane are 40% more likely to survive a crash than those sitting in the front. 7. A flight data recorder is usually mounted in the aircraft's empennage (tail section), where it is more likely to survive a severe crash. 8. Boeing, the FAA and a website on aircraft safety, all claiming that there is no safest seat. 9. For every billion kilometres travelled, trains have a fatality rate 12 times larger than air travel, while automobiles have a fatality rate 62 times larger. 10. When compared against all other modes of transport on a fatality per mile basis air transport is the safest. Exercise 4.Write the correct form of the word in brackets and complete the sentences. 1. In 1926 and 1927 there were a total of 24 fatal (commerce) airline crashes. 2. (Safe) improvements have resulted from improved aircraft design, engineering and maintenance, the evolution of navigation aids, and safety protocols and procedures. 3. A (disproportion) number of all U.S. aircraft crashes occur in Alaska, largely as a result of severe weather conditions. 4. UK airline operations are among the (safe) anywhere. 5. For every billion kilometres (travel), trains have a fatality rate 12 times larger than air travel, while automobiles have a fatality rate 62 times larger. 6. When (measure) on a passenger-distance calculation, air travel is the safest form of transportation available. Exercise 5. Fill in the correct abbreviation (from the box below). DME, NDB, INS, VOR-DME, WAAS, GPS, VOR 1. ________ makes it possible for aircrews to know their position with great precision anywhere in the world. 2. With the arrival of _________, GPS navigation has become accurate enough for vertical (altitude) as well as horizontal use, and is being used increasingly for instrument approaches as well as en-route navigation. 3. However, since the GPS constellation is a single point of failure that can be switched off by the U.S. military in time of crisis, on-board ___________ or ground-based navigation aids are still required for backup. 4. _____ stations became the predominate means of route navigation during the 1960s, superseding the low frequency radio ranges and the _______. 5. The ground based VOR stations were often co-located with ______ transmitters and then labelled as _________ stations on navigation charts. Text 2. Read and translate the following text into Ukrainian. Causes and Common Types of Aviation Accidents The causes of aviation accidents vary greatly depending on specific circumstances and problems that may develop during the flight process. 1. Decent and Landing Accidents Descent and landing accidents account for 36 percent of all general aviation mishaps and the most common type of accident. There are five stages of the descent and landing process. These include descent, approach, landing, go-around or aborted landing, and taxi. 2. Aborted Landings An aborted landing is a circumstance where the pilot of a plane must take control and abandon his or her landing plan for a safer alternative. This usually requires a second go-around followed by a successful landing, but sometimes complications can arise. Aborted landings are done out of necessity and to ensure the safety of all pilots and passengers involved. 3. Defective Landing Gear Landing a plane safely is perhaps the most important part of a pilot’s job. Sometimes this task is complicated not through the fault of a pilot but as a result of defective landing gear on the plane itself. It is not difficult to imagine the complications and disasters defective landing gear could cause. 4. Taxi and Takeoff Accidents One of the most important parts of a flight is the preflight and planning stages of the operation. This involves preflight inspections for safety, flight preparation, taxiing, and takeoff. When combined, taxi and takeoff accidents account for about 22 percent of all commercial jet airplane accidents and about 22 percent of all fatalities. 5. Preflight Accidents Before taking off, it is the responsibility of the pilot or airline to perform a complete inspection of the plane to make absolutely certain it is safe to beairborne. This process involves the checking of gauges, displays, instruments, and all parts of the plane to ensure its safety. 6. Climbout Accidents The period of flight during takeoff and climbout can be extremely dangerous for pilots and passengers alike. Much of the uncertainty during this time can be prevented with effective flight planning. However, when pilots or staff members fail to be vigilant in planning their ascent, climbout accidents may be more likely to occur. 7. Mechanical Failures No form of transportation is completely safe, and no machine is completely foolproof. Murphy’s Law states that anything that can go wrong will go wrong. Tragically, this sometimes applies to aviation accidents when mechanical failures occur. Mechanical failure is responsible for 13 percent of all commercial airplane accidents from 1950 through 2004. 8. Electrical Malfunctions Aging electrical systems on older airplanes can cause severe aviation accidents. Electrical malfunctions can be deadly because electrical systems control many of the instruments pilots rely on to fly steadily. When these instruments are unreadable, pilots must fly blindly and the lives of pilots and passengers are put at risk. 9. Fixed-Wing Accidents When most people think of an airplane, the mental image they conjure up is that of a fixed-wing aircraft. The term fixed-wing can apply to monoplanes, biplanes, and triplanes. Fixed-wing airplanes are by far the most commonly used vehicles for commercial and recreational recreation. 10. Engine Failure Engine failure is a mechanical problem that can easily lead to aviation accidents. There are many reasons engine failure may occur, including an insufficient fuel supply and the breaking of engine parts. Pilots and crew are specially trained to manage engine failure as best they can by gliding the plane to a safe landing, but sometimes the aviation accidents resulting from this mechanical problem can be horrific. 11. Defective Landing Gear When mechanical problems affect the landing gear of an aircraft, a pilot’s ability to land safely is compromised. Defective landing gear can result in panic and quick decisions that have lead to truly tragic aviation accidents in the past. 12. Defective Rudder The rudder on an aircraft is an essential component on the tail that is used by the pilot to control the yaw axis. In aviation, the yaw axis describes the rotation about the vehicle’s normal axis or center of mass. The rudder of an airplane is usually controlled by foot pedals, and when the pedals or rudder are defective the pilot becomes unable to fully control the plane. 13. Defective Gauges/Instruments The gauges and instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft allow the pilot to control the vehicle he or she is flying. These gauges and instruments provide power, fuel supply, temperature, altitude, speed, position and other information that allows the aircraft to operate safely. 14. Pilot Errors and Negligence When most people make mistakes at their jobs, their employment can be terminated. When pilots are negligent or make errors while on the job, there is the potential for hundreds of lives to be terminated. Pilots receive extensive training designed to prepare them to handle a wide variety of situations, but there are times when fatal mistakes are made. 15. Faulty Flight Maneuvers Faulty flight maneuvers can be avoided when pilots are cautious and act professionally. Steep turns, slow flight, stalls and stall recovery, spins and spin recovery, and forced landings are all procedures that pilots should have mastered before earning their license. 16. Pilot Heart Attack/ Stroke Pilots are under tremendous amounts of stress while flying. It is their duty to ensure the safety of themselves and all the passengers on board. US Navy studies have found that most pilots experience an increase in their heart rate when landing or taking off that can be explained by the high level of concentration required to perform these tasks safely. 17. Pilot Intoxication Federal law dictates that pilots cannot drink alcohol within eight hours of a flight. This is because the level of attention to safely pilot an aircraft is extremely high. Studies have suggested that the number of serious errors made by pilots dramatically increases at blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels as low as 0.025%. The effects of alcohol consumption can impact pilots who are not intoxicated at the time of flying. 18. Pilot Epileptic Attack People diagnosed with epilepsy are forbidden by law to fly aircraft by the Federal Aviation Administration. This is due to the incapacitating effects an epileptic seizure could have on a pilot. Although there are different forms of epilepsy and a wide range of seizure severity, individuals suffering from epilepsy may not become licensed pilots. 19. Fuel Mismanagement Fuel mismanagement often results in some of the most avoidable aviation accidents. There are two main forms of fuel mismanagement: fuel exhaustion and fuel starvation. Fuel exhaustion takes place when the aircraft is completely out of fuel, while fuel starvation occurs when fuel remains but the pilot does not switch tanks after one runs dry. 20. Gas/ Fuel Leak When a gas or fuel leak occurs, fuel mismanagement is likely to occur. When pilots plan their flights they load their aircraft with fuel accordingly. The onset of a leak can severely shorten the amount of time one may safely fly. Pilots must act quickly when they observe a leak taking place. In some instances, by acting quickly and appropriately pilots may be able to avert an aviation accident. 21. Wrong Fuel Usage It is extremely important for the correct fuel to be used in aircraft engines. Reciprocating engines require avgas, while turbine engines must run on jet fuel. Engine damage and other malfunctions are common consequences of using the wrong fuel. In some cases damage may occur slowly over time but in other circumstances overheating or combustion may take place. 22. Fuel Pump Malfunction Aircraft fuel is what feeds engines and allows a vehicle to become and remain airborne. When the supply of fuel is interrupted, the fate of the aircraft is jeopardized. The fuel pump of an aircraft allows fuel to be distributed from tanks to the engines. When fuel pump malfunctions occur the results can be deadly. 23. Inclement Weather Over an eleven year period there were over five thousand light aircraft accidents in the United States relating to inclement weather. Of these, over 1,700 resulted in fatalities. Although poor weather conditions are beyond the control of pilots, airlines, and flight crew, these people have a responsibility for the safety of their passengers. When the decision is made to go ahead with a flight despite weather advisories, the lives of others are put at risk. 24. Lightning It is estimated that on average each commercial airplane in the United States is struck by lightning at least once per year. Although it is extremely rare for aviation accidents to directly result from lightning contact, complications and other distractions may occur that could divert a pilot’s attention from his or her flight plan. 25. Wind and Wind Shear During an eleven year period, 48 percent of light aircraft weather accidents were caused by winds blowing aircraft off the side or end of a runway on takeoff. Although light aircraft are most affected by winds, larger aircrafts can be unexpectedly moved around as well. When this occurs a sense of panic may fill the cabin as passengers question their own safety and the competence of their pilots. 26. Snow As anyone might suspect, flying in the snow can be a dangerous adventure. Pilots should not fly in whiteout conditions such as blizzards. At these times visibility is often so poor that instruments must be relied upon almost exclusively to determine one’s position and surroundings. 27. Rain Rain and thunderstorms can be extremely hazardous to aviation. Turbulence, cumulus clouds, high winds, ice, hail, lightning, loss of visibility, electrostatic discharge, tornadoes, altimetry errors, and wet runways often accompany rain and must be managed by pilots and flight crews. In most situations, pilots are instructed to avoid severe thunderstorms and rain due to the risks they may pose for passengers and crew. 28. Other Causes of Airplane Accidents Beyond the obvious hazards that can contribute to an aviation accident, other causes exist. It is important for these possibilities to be taken into consideration so that the lives of passengers and other innocent people are not jeopardized by the short-sightedness of crew. 29. Bird Hazards Although many people may not realize it, birds are a common threat to airline safety. A number of fatal accidents have been caused by bird strike, one of which killed 62 passengers in 1960. Bird strike is such a serious problem that the FAA estimates it costs United States aviation $480 million each year. 30. Mid-Air Collisions A mid-air collision is every pilot and passenger’s worst nightmare and one of the most dramatic types of aviation accident. Mid-air collisions are almost always due to human error, and are entirely preventable. Pilots receive training to avoid potentially dangerous situations, but when this preparation is overlooked fatal consequences may occur. 31. Air Traffic Control Errors Not all air traffic control errors result in aviation accidents. Many errors are only described as “close calls”, where a mistake was made but no accident took place. However, nobody wants to put their life at risk with “close calls” when they are travelling hundreds of miles per hour at thousands of feet above ground. 32. Structural Defects Structural defects can lead to dramatic and unpredictable aviation accidents. Defects can range from faulty or aging wires to corrosion and fuselage loss. In 1988, a Boeing 737 flown by Aloha Airlines experienced a ruptured fuselage, tearing part of the cabin apart and blowing a flight attendant off the plane and to her death. The accident was caused by problems with the adhesive bonding process, a problem Boeing was already aware of. 33. Lack of Maintenance on an Airplane Without maintenance, any aircraft will eventually become a serious hazard. Commercial, military, and private aviation organizations employ aircraft maintenance technicians to constantly work on aircraft to keep them safe and in working order. In the vast majority of cases, the work done is timely and of high quality, contributing the overall safety of flight as a mode of transportation. Exercise 1.State whether the following statements are true or false. Correct false statements. 1. The causes of aviation accidents vary greatly depending on specific circumstances and problems that may develop during the flight process. 2. Landing a plane safely accounts for 36 percent of all general aviation mishaps and is the most common type of accident. 3. Descent and landing accidents is perhaps the most necessary part of a pilot’s job. 4. Preflight and planning stages of the operation involve preflight inspections for safety, flight preparation, taxiing, and takeoff. 5. An aborted landing is the responsibility of the pilot or airline to perform a complete inspection of the plane to make absolutely certain it is safe to be airborne. 6. When pilots or staff members fail to be vigilant in planning their ascent, climbout accidents may be more likely to occur. 7. When mechanical problems affect the fixed-wing, a pilot’s ability to land safely is compromised. 8. Murphy’s Law states that anything that can go wrong will go wrong. 9. Faulty flight maneuvers can’t be avoided when pilots are cautious and act professionally. 10. The rudder on an aircraft is an essential component on the tail that is used by the pilot to control the yaw axis. Exercise 2.Answer the questions: 1. What percent of all general aviation mishaps do descent and landing accidents account for? 2. What is an aborted landing? 3. What do preflight and planning stages of the operation involve? 4. What responsibility does a pilot or airline have before taking off? 5. Are all the machines always completely foolproof? 6. What kind of failure is responsible for 13 percent of all commercial airplane accidents from 1950 through 2004? 7. What can aging electrical systems on older airplanes cause? 8. What can happen, when pilots are negligent or make errors while on the job? 9. What can happen when a gas or fuel leak occurs? 10. Birds are a common threat to airline safety, aren’t they? Exercise 3. Match the word to the appropriate definition. 1. A mid-air collision a. an essential component on the tail that is used by the pilot to control the yaw axis. 2. Aircraft fuel b. one of the most important parts of a flight. 3. Engine damage c. what feeds engines and allows a vehicle to become and remain airborne. 4. The rudder on an aircraft d. a circumstance where the pilot of a plane must take control and abandon his or her landing plan for a safer alternative. 5. Engine failure e. the most common type of accident. 6. Preflight and planning stages of the operation f. every pilot and passenger’s worst nightmare and one of the most dramatic types of aviation accident. 7. Landing a plane safely g. a mechanical problem that can easily lead to aviation accidents. 8. An aborted landing h. that anything that can go wrong will go wrong. 9. Descent and landing accident i. common consequence of using the wrong fuel. 10. Murphy’s Law j. the most important part of a pilot’s job. Exercise 4. Find English equivalents in the text. 1. Зниження; зменшення висоти польоту; 2. Наближення; 3. Кружляння; 4. Вирулювання; 5. Посадка; 6. Зліт; 7. Огляд перед відльотом; 8. Підготовка до польоту; 9. Аварія принаборів висоти; 10. Надійний, безпечний; захищений від поломки.